Introduction

1) Tom Nairn, The Break-up of Britain: Crisis and Neo-Nationalism, Second Edition, London, New Left Books, 1977, p.334.

2) Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Oxford, Blackwell Publishers, 1983, p.1.

3) As argued by Tom Nairn, op. cit.

4)The idea of communities as imagined is drawn from Benedict Anderson’s anthropological view of nationalism, where a nation "is an imagined community - and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign." Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London, Verso, 1991, pp.6.

5) Gellner, op. cit., p.100.

6) For a more recent discussion on the division of Europe along these lines see Mattei Dogan "Nationalism in Europe: Decline in the West, Revival in the East" in Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, vol.3, no.3, Autumn 1997, pp.66-85.

7) Richard Kearney, Postnationalist Ireland: Politics, Culture, Philosophy, London, Routledge, 1997.

8) Daniele Conversi, "Reassessing Current Theories of Nationalism: Nationalism as Boundary Maintenance and Creation" in Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, vol.1, no.1, Spring 1995, pp.73-85.

9) John Plamenatz, "Two Types of Nationalism" in Eugene Kamenka (ed.), Nationalism: The Nature of an Evolution of an Idea, Canberra, Australian National University Press, 1975, p.23.

10) Ibid., pp.30.

11) Ibid., pp.34.

12) Kearney, op. cit., pp.2.

13) Ibid., pp.57.

14) Ibid., p.201fn24.

15) Ibid., pp.190fn4 taken from Desmond Fennell, The Revision of Irish Nationalism, Dublin, Open Air, 1989, p.13.

16) Tom Nairn, Faces of Nationalism: Janus Revisited, London, Verso, 1997, pp.165.

17) Kearney, op. cit., p.11.

18) Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1992, p.1.

19) Ibid., p.23.

20) Ibid., p.4.

21) Ibid.

22) Gellner, op. cit., p.9.

23) Ibid., p.4.

24) John Hutchinson, Modern Nationalism, London, Fontana Press, 1994, p.7.

25) Tom Nairn, Faces of Nationalism: Janus Revisited, London, Verso, 1997, p.11.

26) Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origin of Nations, Oxford, Blackwell, 1986, p.12.

27) Ghia Nodia, "Nationalism and Democracy," in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (eds), Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Democracy, Baltimore, John Hopkins University Press, 1994, p.10.

28) Michael Ignatieff, Blood and Belonging, London, Vintage, 1994, p.4.

29) Walker Connor, "When is a Nation?" in Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol.13, no.1, 1990, p.98.

30) Tom Nairn, The Break-up of Britain : Crisis and Neonationalism, 2nd expanded ed., London, Verso, p.334.

31) Ibid.

32) Gellner, op. cit., pp.55

33) Ibid., pp.61

 

Chapter I

1) Rogers Brubaker, "Myths and Misconceptions in the Study of Nationalism", in John A. Hall (ed.,) The State of the Nation, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998, p.301.

2) Ibid.

3) The development of a nation-state with its own citizenry presupposed centuries of state-building and state-membership.

4) The mimicking of the West is taken up by Tom Nairn and more strongly by Liah Greenfeld who terms it ressentiment. See Tom Nairn, Faces of Nationalism: Janus Revisited, Verso, London, 1997, p.3, and Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1992, pp.15-17.

5) Brubaker tells us that "Every state claims to be the state of, and for, a particular bounded citizenry, usually conceived as a nation." Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1992, p.x.

6) Ernest Gellner, Nationalism, New York, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997, p.2.

7) Ibid.

8) Ibid., p.3.

9) More specifically those who work outside the framework of modernity when discussing nationalism such as Clifford Geertz, in Clifford Geertz (ed.), Old Societies and New States, New York, Free Press, 1963.

10) Robert P. Clark "‘Rejectionist’ Voting as an Indicator of Ethnic Nationalism: the Case of Spain’s Basque Provinces, 1976-1986" in Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol.10, no.4, October 1987, p.437.

11) Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Oxford, Blackwell, 1983, p.110.

12) This is not to suggest that the pure form of civic nationalism was the first nationalism practised, nor that it ever has been practised.

13) Gellner 1983, op. cit., p.9.

14) Anthony D. Smith. The Ethnic Origins of Nations, Oxford, Blackwell, 1986, p.136.

15) "In Brief", Guardian Weekly, June 11, 1998, p.5.

16) Anthony D. Smith, "Anthony D. Smith’s Opening Statement: Nations and Their Pasts", in Nations and Nationalism, vol.2, no.3, 1996, p.363.

17) Smith, 1986, op. cit., p.136.

18) John Hutchinson, Modern Nationalism, London, Fontana Press, 1994, p.17.

19) Ibid.

20) Smith, 1986, op. cit., p.3.

21) Glenda Sluga, "Identity, Gender, and the History of European Nations and Nationalisms", in Nations and Nationalism, vol.4, no.1, p.88.

22) Smith, 1986, op. cit., p.137.

23) Nairn, op.cit., p.339.

24) Ibid.

25) Greenfeld, op. cit., p.15.

26) Nairn, op. cit., p.339.

27) Ibid, p.340.

28) A preliminary examination of this is undertaken by Frank B. Tipton, "The Pathology of Nationalism", Colloquium, Macquarie University School of Modern Languages, Centre for Slavonic and East European Studies, March 1995. A more thorough study of the pathological elements of ethnic nationalism is by Dusan Kecmanovic, The Mass Psychology of Ethnonationalism, New York, Plenum Press, 1996.

29) Some good examples of where there have been explorations into nationalism and the psychoanalytical theories include Slavoj Zizek, For They Know Not What They Do: Enjoyment as a Political Factor, London, Verso, 1991; Dusan Kecmanovic, op. cit., and Alan Finlayson "Psychology, Psychoanalysis and Theories of Nationalism" in Nations and Nationalism vol.4, no.2, 1998, pp.145-162.

30) John Hutchinson, "Cultural Nationalism and Moral Regeneration", in John Hutchinson & Anthony Smith (eds), Nationalism, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994, p.122. Hutchinson here is referring specifically to cultural nationalism.

31) Ibid.

32) Brubaker, op. cit., p.x.

33) Smith, op.cit., p.137.

34) Brubaker, op. cit., p.4.

35) Fukuyama being a prime example in Francis Fukuyama The End of History and The Last Man, London, Penguin Books, 1992.

36) Noel Malcolm, Kosovo: A Short History, New York, New York University Press, 1998, p.xxix.

37) Gellner 1997, op. cit., p.1.

38) Ibid.

39) Ibid. p.2.

40) By organic I mean a biological transmission.

41) Ibid.

42) Nairn, op. cit., pp.82-83.

43) Though really only men who had come of age were regarded as citizens. Women entered the equation much later.

44) Smith, op. cit., p.156.

45) Ibid.

46) Sabrina Ramet, Social Currents in Eastern Europe: The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation, Second Edition, Durham, Duke University Press, 1995, p.3.

47) Ibid. p.4.

48) Gellner 1997, op. cit., p.3.

49) Ibid. p.5.

50) Ibid.

51) Smith, op. cit., p.3.

52) Nairn, op. cit., p.4.

 

Chapter II

1) Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Oxford, Blackwell, 1983, pp.10-11.

2) Anthony D. Smith, "Anthony D. Smith’s Opening Statement: Nations and their Pasts" in Nations and Nationalism, vol.2, no.3, 1996, p.361.

3) Rogers Brubaker, "Myths and Misconceptions in the Study of Nationalism", in John A. Hall (ed.,) The State of the Nation, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998, p.279.

4) Paul James, Nation Formation, London, Sage, 1996, p.128.

5) Tom Nairn, Faces of Nationalism: Janus Revisited, London, Verso, 1997, p.110.

6) Ibid., p.105.

7) Ibid., p.2.

8) Ibid., p.2.

9) Gellner, op. cit., pp.51-52.

10) James, op. cit., p.33.

11) Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1992, p.23.

12) Ibid., p.75.

13) Ernest Gellner, The Conditions of Liberty: Civil Society and Its Rivals, New York, Hamish Hamilton, 1994, p.5.

14) Nairn, op. cit., p.73.

15) Ibid.

16) Ibid., p.75.

17) Sabrina Ramet, Social Currents in Eastern Europe: The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation, Second Edition, Durham, Duke University Press, 1995, pp.21-22.

18) Ibid., p.10.

19) Nairn, op. cit., p.82.

20) Ernest Gellner, Encounters with Nationalism, Oxford, Blackwell, 1994, p.13.

21) Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London, Verso, 1983, p.43.

22) Ibid., pp.43 and Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations, Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 1986, p.10.

23) Smith, 1986, op. cit., p.10.

24) Nairn, op. cit., p.8.

25) Gellner, 1994, op. cit., p.3.

26) Nairn, op. cit., p.4.

27) James, op. cit., p.44.

28) Smith, 1986, op. cit., p.362.

29) Dubravka Ugresic, The Culture of Lies: Antipolitical Essays, London, Phoenix House, 1998.

30) Smith, 1986, op. cit., p.169.

31) See especially Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1992, p.11.

32) For a more detailed discussion of collective memory and ethnicity see Dusan Kecmanovic, The Mass Psychology of Ethnonationalism, New York, Plenum Press, 1996.

33) Smith, 1986, op. cit., p.383.

34) Slaven Letica, Obe_ana Zemlja (The Promised Land), Croatia, Tiskara Rijeka, 1992, pp.473, 488-489.

35) Slavoj Zizek, For They Know Not What They Do: Enjoyment as a Political Factor, London, Verso, 1991, p.60n41.

36) Nairn, op. cit., p.91.

37) Gellner 1994, op. cit., p.2.

38) He asked this during a well-known debate between himself and former student and colleague, the ethnicist Anthony D. Smith. The Warwick Debate: Nations and Nationalism vol.2, no.3, 1996, pp.358-365.

39) Nairn, op. cit., p.3.

40) Ernest Gellner, Nationalism, New York, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997, p.23.

41) Ibid., p.11.

Chapter III

1) John Hutchinson, Modern Nationalism, London, Fontana Press, 1994, p.3.

2) This is taken directly from Anthony Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations, Oxford, Blackwell, 1986, passim.

3) Ibid., p. 8.

4) This benchmark is used specifically for nationalism in Europe.

5) Smith, op. cit., pp. 131-134.

6) "This, then, is the goal and content of the new national imaginings: to present a vision of ethnic fraternity of elites and masses through a historical drama in which a unified past is uncovered and re-presented, in the fashion of a museum, and thereby to evoke deeper meanings of collective destiny and community in the face of the dangerous fragmentation and alienation that modern industrialism and science unfold."

7) Here Smith almost admits to it being a subject of modernity as he briefly departs from his "three revolutions" theory. Ibid., p.173.

8) Ibid., p.17.

9) Ibid., p.147.

10) Ibid., p.157.

11) Ibid., p.145.

12) Hutchinson, op. cit., p.2.

13) Smith, op. cit., p.137.

14) Ibid., p.137

15) For a detailed discussion on the Bosnian Muslim ethnic community and the history of the Bosnian region see Noel Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History, London, MacMillan, 1994.

16) Smith, op. cit., p.147.

17) Ibid., p.18.

18) Ibid., p.157.

19) Paul James, Nation Formation, London, Sage, 1996, p.69n84.

20) Smith, op. cit., p.155.

21) Ibid., p.170.

22) Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London, Verso, 1983, p.43.

23) As the title of Tom Nairn’s book suggests.

24) Ramet, Sabrina, Social Currents in Eastern Europe: The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation, Second Edition, Durham, Duke University Press, 1995, p.433.

25) Ibid.

26) Ibid.

27) Brubaker, Rogers, "Myths and Misconceptions in the Study of Nationalism", in John A. Hall (ed.,) The State of the Nation, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998, p.288.

28) Ramet, op. cit., p.432.

29) For a good discussion on the plight of the Roma/gypsies see Isabel Fonesca, Bury Me Standing: The Gypsies and Their Journey, New York, Vintage, 1996.

30) Ramet, op. cit., p.435.

31) Ibid.

32) For a discussion on the history of the Kosovo region see Noel Malcolm, Kosovo: A Short History, New York, New York University Press, 1998.

33) Ramet, op. cit., p.437.

34) Ibid., p.450 see also Dubravka Ugresic, The Culture of Lies: Antipolitical Essays, London, Phoenix House, 1998.

35) Smith, 1986, op. cit., p.169.

36) Ibid., p.431.

37) Ibid., p.433.

38) Ibid., p.432.

39) Ibid., p.433.

40) Smith, op. cit., p.16.

41) Ibid., p.384.

42) Ibid., p.169.

43) Ibid., p.142.

44) Ibid. Smith was specifically referring to the cases of Poland and Hungary.

45) Ibid., p.141.

 

Conclusion

1) Brubaker, Rogers, "Myths and Misconceptions in the Study of Nationalism", in John A. Hall (ed.,) The State of the Nation, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998, p.274.

2) Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations, Oxford, Blackwell, 1986, p.3.

3) Ibid., p.154.

4) Steven Majstorovic, "Politicized Ethnicity and Economic Inequality: A Subjective Perspective and a Cross-National Examination", in Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, vol.1, no.1, Spring 1995, pp.33-53.

5) Sabrina Ramet, Social Currents in Eastern Europe: The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation, Second Edition, Durham, Duke University Press, 1995, p.20.

6) Ibid., p.454.

7) Ernest Gellner, The Conditions of Liberty: Civil Society and Its Rivals, New York, 1994, p.5.

8) Ramet, op. cit., p.5.

9) Smith, op. cit., p.147.

10) Ernest Gellner most recently in his book Nationalism, New York, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997.

11) Ramet points out that economic factors are not necessarily just objective. Ramet, op. cit., p.5.

12) Tom Nairn, Faces of Nationalism: Janus Revisited, London, Verso, 1997, p.105.

13) For further discussion on this process see Alan Finlayson, "Psychology, Psychoanalysis and Theories of Nationalism" in Nations and Nationalism vol.4, no.2, 1998, pp.145-162.

14) Stjepan G. Mestrovic, "Introduction" in Stjepan G. Mestrovic (ed.), Genocide After Emotion: The Postemotional Balkan War, London, Routledge, 1996, p.30. This idea, though introduced by Slaven Letica, was born out of the Balkan War(s).

15) Ibid., p.80.

16) Gellner 1997, op. cit., p.11.

17) Ibid., p.6.

18) Gellner as mentioned in Nairn, op. cit., p.2.

19) Nairn, op. cit., p.105.

20) Liah Greenfeld, paper presented at The Future of Nationalism and the State Conference, 15 July 1996, The University of Sydney.

21) Stjepan Mestrovic, The Balkanization if the West: The Confluence of Postmodernism and Postcommunism, London, Routledge, 1994, p.68.

22) Nairn, op. cit., p.91.

23) Ibid.

24) Ibid.

25) Ibid., p.104.

26) Ibid., p.105.

27) Ibid., p.104.

28) Anthony D. Smith, "Anthony D. Smith "Anthony D. Smith’s Opening Statement: Nations and Their Pasts", in Nations and Nationalism, vol.2, no.3, 1996, p.359.

29) Smith 1986, op. cit., p.137.

30) Nairn, op. cit., p.86.

31) Ibid.

32) Smith sees Gellner’s theory as Euclidean. Smith 1996, op. cit., pp.358-365.

33) Ernest Gellner, "Ernest Gellner’s Reply: ‘Do Nations Have Navels?’ in Nations and Nationalism, vol.2, no.3, 1996, p.367.

34) Ibid.

35) Tom Nairn, The Break-up of Britain: Crisis and Neo-Nationalism, Second Edition, New Left Books, London, 1977, p. 336.

36) Ibid.

37) Ibid.

38) Ibid.

39) John Plamenatz, "Two types of Nationalism" in Eugene Kamenka (ed.) Nationalism: The Nature and Evolution of An Idea, Canberra, Australian National University Press, 1975.

40) Smith states: "I doubt whether we are in a position yet to offer a theory of so protean and many sided a set of phenomena as ethnies, nations and nationalisms, except at a very general level." Smith 1996, op. cit., p.362.